Introduction to Public Relations Ethics
Module 1/Lesson 1: Lesson Plan
Some would argue that public relations professionals are tasked with “doing the right thing.” But what is the right thing? The study of ethics helps identify the process public relations professionals use in order to make decisions about what course of action is the right one to take.
There is a rich history of scholarship that explores ethics. To provide greater context in understanding the unique application within public relations, it is helpful to have a brief overview of major areas of thought. This lesson will briefly introduce some key elements to understanding ethics.
Normative Ethics
This lesson covers the definition of normative ethics and compares it to applied ethics, or the kind of ethics that is primarily studied within public relations scholarship. Students will also be briefly introduced to key ethical constructs such utilitarian ethics, deontological ethics and virtue ethics in order to provide a cognitive foundation for how ethical theories are applied in ethical situations for public relations.
Key Concept
Students should be able to recognize key concepts in ethical theory both in applied and normative ethics.
Discussion Question One
Out of the three major areas within normative ethics (utilitarian, deontological, and virtue) which do you believe provides the strongest foundation for applied ethics in public relations and why?
Obligations of the Profession
With the overview of ethics in general, the ethical obligation of public relations as a profession takes on more depth. This section of the lesson will address reasons that ethical behavior is intrinsically required within public relations. The first part in this section addresses the role of public relations in society as an advocate for clients and a trusted source of counsel. In light of this role, there are expectations of ethical behaviors by practitioners. Next, this section covers how this role can be considered a profession. The characteristics of the profession indicate that public relations practitioners contribute to the good in society, and thus also have an ethical obligation to the public.
Key Concept
Students should be able to explain the ethical obligations that stem from the profession of public relations both toward clients and the public. Students should also be able to define why public relations qualifies as a profession, resulting in ethical expectations from clients and the public.
Discussion Question Two
What are the primary obligations of public relations professionals to clients, publics and the profession?
Associations and Codes of Conducts
The conclusion of this section will address ways in which public relations as a profession has attempted to develop stronger ethical standards. This will include identifying several professional associations within the profession and codes of conduct that have been developed.
Key Concept
Students should be able to recognize the role of professional associations and the purpose of codes of conduct.
Discussion Question Three
Understanding the limitations of codes of ethics and associations within public relations, do you believe it is reasonable to assume there will be a universal code of conduct that will apply to all public relations professionals?
Suggested Reading
The following texts provide additional insight to the class focus and may be helpful to assign as supplemental reading.
Fitzpatrick, K. & Gauthier, C. (2001). “Toward a Professional Responsibility Theory of Public Relations Ethics.” Journal of Mass Media Ethics, 16 (2-3), pp. 193-212.
Kruckeberg, D. (1993). Universal ethics code: Both possible and feasible. Public Relations Review, 19(1), pp. 21-31.
Moyer, J. (2011, Jan. 7). “Ethics and Public Relations.” Institute for Public Relations. Retrieved from: http://www.instituteforpr.org/ethics-and-public-relations/
Module 1/Lesson 2: Lesson Plan
What are the consequences of ethical choices or lapses? This question has profound implications within the profession. The second lesson in this module will address the focus of ethical behavior by introducing topics such as fiduciary responsibility of public relations professionals, the role of ethics in building trust within relationships and the concept of public relations as being a voice of conscience within organizations. Addressing consequences of ethical lapses, the lesson will cover the implications for the practice of public relations as it provides counsel to the C-suite, the impact to the professional reputation of public relations and damage to public trust when professionals do not fulfill ethical obligations.
Beyond simply understanding what ethics are and how the industry has attempted to develop ethical conduct among professionals, it is vital that students understand the inherent link between the essence of public relations and ethical behavior. In order to accomplish this, this lesson will explore key facets to the process of public relations and the link to ethics.
Trust In Relationships
Public relations professionals have been considered to have a fiduciary responsibility to advocate for their client, providing a voice in the marketplace of ideas. This kind of relationship depends on leadership recognizing that the public relations professional is loyal and trustworthy with confidences. In addition, the public anticipates that the public relations professionals can function as a voice of conscience for organizational leadership, providing recommendations on ethical behavior that will directly impact key stakeholders. This expectation is why publics can trust that the public relations professional is committed to mutually beneficial relationships and not just serving at the will of the client without regard to key stakeholders.
Key Concept
Students will be able to compare and contrast the ways that public relations professionals have ethical obligations both to publics and clients. In addition, they will be able to articulate the role of ethical decision-making as a key factor in trust building for any relationship that public relations professionals seek to maintain.
Discussion Question One
What is the impact to the role of a public relations professional when trust is lost either with a client or the public?
Ethical Decision-Making Models
After understanding the role of ethical decision making, this lesson will briefly introduce some models that public relations professionals have been encouraged to apply in situations in order to arrive at ethical conclusions. The recommended models will be Bowen’s model of strategic decision-making, the TARES model for ethical persuasion, and Potter’s Box for ethical decisions.
Key Concept
Students will be able to identify three models of public relations decision making to arrive at ethical decisions and explain why these models have been developed.
Discussion Question Two
What is the value of having different decision-making models available for public relations professionals?
State of Ethics in Public Relations
Finally, this lesson will conclude with an overview of what has been observed about public relations professionals and their approach to ethics. This will address several key areas. The first area to address will be the seeming gap in preparation for ethical decision-making that is present among professionals. Next, the lesson will explore the reasons why professionals may feel unable to make ethical decisions or to provide an ethical voice. Finally, it will conclude with a review of the necessity for public relations professionals to be equipped and confident in providing an ethical voice to maintain the professional role that public relations has in society.
Key Concept
Students will be able to identify the struggles among public relations professionals when attempting to be a voice of conscience or to make ethical decisions in the workplace. They will also be able to discuss the implications for the industry, clients and publics if professionals abdicate this ethical counsel function in society.
Discussion Question Three
What things should public relations professionals do in order to be prepared to have a strong ethical voice in organizations?
Suggested Reading
The following texts provide additional insight to the class focus and may be helpful to assign as supplemental reading.
Bowen, S.A. (2004). A State of Neglect: Public Relations as ‘Corporate Conscience’ or Ethical Counsel. Journal of Public Relations Research. 20, pp. 271-296.
Curtin, P. A., Gallicano, T. and Matthew, K. (2011). Millennials’ Approaches to ethical decision making: A survey of young public relations agency employees. Public Relations Journal, 5(2), 1-22.
Neill, M. S. and Drumwright, M. E. (2012). “PR Professionals as Organizational Conscience.” Journal of Mass Media Ethics, 27 (4), pp. 220-234.
Resources
- Module One, Lesson One Lesson Plan
- Module One, Lesson One Powerpoint
- Module One, Lesson Two Lesson Plan
- Module One, Lesson Two Powerpoint
- Interview with Shannon Bowen, professor at the University of South Carolina, on public relations ethics
Module Overview
Ethics are the foundation from which effective public relations is practiced. While ethics is a topic often discussed, there can be fundamental misunderstandings about what ethics actually are, how they integrate with the profession, and the role ethics play in everyday activities of professionals. This module addresses those key questions over the course of two lessons: 1) Understanding Ethics & The Profession; 2) Ethics, Trust & Decision Making.
Citations & ResourcesModule 1, Lesson 1 References
Bowen, S.A. (2004). A State of Neglect: Public Relations as ‘Corporate Conscience’ or Ethical Counsel. Journal of Public Relations Research. 20, pp. 271-296.
Curtin, P. A., Gallicano, T. and Matthew, K. (2011). Millennials’ Approaches to ethical decision making: A survey of young public relations agency employees. Public Relations Journal, 5(2), 1-22.
Edelman (2015). 2015 Edelman trust barometer. Retrieved from http://www.edelman.com/insights/intellectual-property/2015-edelman-trust-barometer/.
Fawkes, J. (2012). Interpreting ethics: Public Relations and strong hermeneutics. Public Relations Inquiry, 1(2), pp. 117-140.
Fitzpatrick, K. & Gauthier, C. (2001). “Toward a Professional Responsibility Theory of Public Relations Ethics.” Journal of Mass Media Ethics, 16 (2-3), pp. 193-212.
Gregory, A. & Willis, P. (2013). Strategic public relations leadership. London New York, NY: Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group.
Grunig, J. E. (1989) Symmetrical presuppositions as a framework for public relations theory. In C.H. Botan & V. Hazleton, Jr. (Eds). Public relations theory, pp. 17-44. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Grunig, J E. (1992). Excellence in public relations and communication management. Hillsdale, N.J: L. Erlbaum Associates.
Harrison, J. (2004). Conflicts of duty and the virtues of Aristotle in public relations ethics: Continuing the conversation commenced by Monica Walle. Prism 2.
Heath, R. & Coombs, W. (2006). Today's public relations an introduction. Thousand Oaks, Calif: SAGE Publications, 228.
Kearny, M. (1984). Worldview. Novato, CA: Chandler & Sharp.
Kruckeberg, D. (1989). A need for an international code of ethics. Public Relations Review, 15(2), pp. 6-18.
Kruckeberg, D. (1993). Universal ethics code: Both possible and feasible. Public Relations Review, 19(1), pp. 21-31.
Moyer, J. (2011, Jan. 7). “Ethics and Public Relations.” Institute for Public Relations. Retrieved from: http://www.instituteforpr.org/ethics-and-public-relations/
Neill, M. S. and Drumwright, M. E. (2012). “PR Professionals as Organizational Conscience.” Journal of Mass Media Ethics, 27 (4), pp. 220-234.
Parsons, P. (2008). Ethics in public relations a guide to best practice. London Philadelphia: Kogan Page.
Rae, S. B. (2009). Moral choices: An introduction to ethics (3rd ed.). Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan. p. 15
Reynolds, M. A. (2000). Professionalism, ethical codes and the internal auditor: A moral argument. Journal of Business Ethics, 24, 115–124.
Seib, P. & Fitzpatrick, K. (1995). Public relations ethics. Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt Brace College Publishers.
Seitel, F. (2014). The practice of public relations. Boston: Pearson.
Starck, K. & Kruckeberg, D. (2003). Ethical obligations of public relations in an era of globalization. Journal of Communication Management, 8(1), pp. 29-40.
Wright, D. K. (1993). “Enforcement dilemma: Voluntary nature of public relations codes.” Public Relations Review, 19(1), pp. 13-20.
Module 1, Lesson 2 References
Baker, S. & Martinson, D. L. (2001). The tares test: Five principles for ethical persuasion. Journals of Mass Media Ethics, 16( 2&3), pp. 148-175159
Bowen, S.A. (2004). A State of Neglect: Public Relations as ‘Corporate Conscience’ or Ethical Counsel. Journal of Public Relations Research. 20, pp. 271-296.
Curtin, P. A., Gallicano, T. and Matthew, K. (2011). Millennials’ Approaches to ethical decision making: A survey of young public relations agency employees. Public Relations Journal, 5(2), 1-22.
Fitzpatrick, K. & Gauthier, C. (2001). “Toward a Professional Responsibility Theory of Public Relations Ethics.” Journal of Mass Media Ethics, 16 (2-3), pp. 193-212.
Gregory, A. & Willis, P. (2013). Strategic public relations leadership. London New York, NY: Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group.
Grunig, J E. (1992). Excellence in public relations and communication management. Hillsdale, N.J: L. Erlbaum Associates.
Gundlach, G. & Murphy, P. (1993). Ethical and legal foundations of relational marketing exchanges. Journal of Marketing, 57(4), 35-46.
Neill, M. S. and Drumwright, M. E. (2012). “PR Professionals as Organizational Conscience.” Journal of Mass Media Ethics, 27 (4), pp. 220-234.
Tax, S., Brown, S. W., & Chandrashekaran, M. (1998). Customer evaluations of service complaint experiences: Implications for relationship marketing. Journal of Marketing, 62(2), 60-76.
Module Developer
Dr. Carolyn Kim
Public Relations Professional and Professor, Biola University
Carolyn Mae Kim is a public relations professional who comes from a background working with global charities and national non-profits, developing creative PR and marketing campaigns. Her specialties include digital strategy, brand development, SEO and social media engagement.
She currently is a Biola University faculty member and leads the PR program. Through her mentorship, a student-run firm, 6th Street, was launched and received national affiliation within two years. She also worked with the Public Relations Student Society of America (PRSSA) Biola chapter to help them grow from 3 active students to over thirty, as well as helping two students gain a position on the national e-board for PRSSA. She received the Award of Excellence for Community Relations and Institutional Programs from the Orange County Public Relations Society of America (PRSA) in 2012 for recognition of her work at Biola. Additionally, she received the Ginger Rudeseal Carter Miller Teacher of the Year in 2014 from the Association of Educators in Journalism & Mass Communication (AEJMC) Small Programs Interest Group due to her effective engagement in the classroom and innovative teaching projects.
In addition to teaching, she maintains active participation in the world of public relations through her private consulting with small businesses and non-profits as well as her service as a board member for the Orange County PRSA. She is a national speaker who regularly addresses audiences on the topics of social media and digital communication, as well as publishing on the same topics.
Carolyn received her PhD in communication from Regent University, writing her dissertation on organizational credibility and public perceptions within social media. She received her MA and BA from Biola University.